Bibliography

Annotated Bibliography
1. Religion in Scotland
This section explores the religious landscape of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Scotland, tracing church divisions, Evangelical revivalism, and the moral and social ideals that shaped Norman McLeod and his followers. These works establish the theological and cultural foundations of McLeod’s movement and its enduring influence across the diaspora.
>Brown, Stewart J. “Religion in Scotland.” In A Companion to Eighteenth-Century Britain, edited by H. T. Dickinson, 341–356. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
A concise overview of Scotland’s religious landscape, highlighting church divisions, revivalist movements, and the rise of Evangelicalism. Essential for understanding the spiritual climate that influenced McLeod and his followers.
Craven, John Watson. Andrew Thomson, 1779–1831: Leader of the Evangelical Revival in Scotland. PhD diss., University of Edinburgh, 1955.
Examines one of the key leaders of the Evangelical Revival, illuminating the ideas and practices that informed McLeod’s religious formation and contributed to his later call for emigration.
Fergusson, David A. S., and Mark W. Elliott, eds. The History of Scottish Theology, Volume II: From the Early Enlightenment to the Late Victorian Era. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019.
 A comprehensive collection exploring theological debates and religious movements from the Enlightenment through the Victorian era. Provides crucial intellectual and spiritual context for McLeod’s ministry.
Mechie, Stewart. The Church and Scottish Social Development, 1780–1870. Cunningham Lectures, 1957. London: Oxford University Press, 1960.
 Explores the Church’s social role in education, welfare, and moral guidance, offering insight into the ethical and communal values that Scottish migrants carried abroad.
Ritchie, Elizabeth. “Faith and the Family: Family Life and the Spread of Evangelical Culture in the Scottish Gàidhealtachd, c. 1790–c. 1860.” The Scottish Historical Review 100, no. 1 (2021): 57–81.
 Investigates domestic religious practices in Highland communities, showing how faith was embedded in family life and daily routines—an influence clearly visible in the emigrant culture of McLeod’s followers.
 
2. Socioeconomic and Cultural Changes in the Highlands
This section examines the profound social, economic, and cultural transformations that reshaped the Scottish Highlands between the mid-eighteenth and mid-nineteenth centuries. These studies illuminate the background of rural hardship, modernization, and dislocation that set the stage for mass migration and McLeod’s search for a godly community overseas.
Devine, T. M. Clanship to Crofters’ War: The Social Transformation of the Scottish Highlands. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994.
 A detailed account of social and economic upheaval in the Highlands—land clearances, demographic change, and agrarian reform—that fueled large-scale migration. Provides essential context for the world McLeod’s followers left behind.
Perchard, John. “‘Too Much on the Highlands?’ Recasting the Economic Decline Narrative.” Northern Scotland 4, no. 1 (2013): 3–22.
 Challenges the traditional view of Highland economic decline, presenting a nuanced analysis of agrarian change, commercial pressures, and regional resilience during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
Maudlin, David. “View of Tradition and Change in the Age of Improvement.” Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 133 (2004): 359–374.
 Examines the tension between tradition and modernization in Highland society, focusing on agricultural reforms and their far-reaching social and cultural effects.
Carter, Ian. “Economic Models and the Recent History of the Highlands.” Scottish Studies 15 (1971): 99–120.
 Analyzes the commercialization of Highland society and its social consequences, offering insight into the structural pressures that contributed to emigration.
Historic Environment Scotland. “The Highland Clearances.” Historic Environment Scotland, April 15, 2025.
 Provides a detailed overview of the Clearances, exploring their economic, social, and cultural consequences for Highland communities.
Steel, Rhona. “Scottish History: The Highland Clearances.” Wilderness Scotland, March 29, 2024.
 Analyzes the causes and impacts of the Clearances, emphasizing the resulting social upheaval, cultural loss, and transformation of rural community life.
Scottish History Society. “The Highland Clearances.” Scottish History Society, 2025.
 Offers a scholarly synthesis of economic and social transformations during the Clearances, situating them within the wider history of Highland society.
 
3. Migration and Diaspora
This section situates the migration of Norman McLeod and his community within the wider patterns of Scottish and global diaspora. These works trace the transition from Highland hardship to colonial settlement, exploring how faith, kinship, and identity were carried across oceans to Nova Scotia and New Zealand.
Belich, James. “‘The Settler Transition.’” In Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of the Angloworld, 311–346. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Online ed. Oxford Academic, 2011.
 Situates the Waipu migration within global patterns of settler expansion, showing that McLeod’s journey formed part of a broader “settler revolution.”
Brooking, Tom, and Jennie Coleman. The Heather and the Fern: Scottish Migration and New Zealand Settlement. Dunedin, N.Z.: Otago University Press, 2003.
 A holistic exploration of Scottish migration that intertwines culture, religion, and social networks, situating Waipu within the larger story of the Scottish diaspora.
Bueltmann, Tanja. Scottish Ethnicity and the Making of New Zealand Society, 1850–1930. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011.
 Analyzes the role of Scottish identity in shaping New Zealand society and the persistence of ethnic and religious cohesion within the Waipu community.
Bueltmann, Tanja. “Where the Measureless Ocean between Us Will Roar: Scottish Emigration to New Zealand, Personal Correspondence and Epistolary Practices, c. 1850–1920.” Immigrants & Minorities 26, no. 3 (2008): 221–244.
 Explores the emotional and practical dimensions of migration through letters, showing how community, kinship, and identity were sustained across great distances.
Bueltmann, Tanja. “‘No Colonists Are More Imbued with Their National Sympathies than Scotchmen’: Scottish Associational Culture in Colonial New Zealand.” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 36, no. 3 (2008): 383–408.
 Analyzes Scottish associational networks in colonial New Zealand, highlighting how migrants preserved cultural cohesion and collective identity.
Calder, Jenni. Scots in Canada. Edinburgh: Luath Press, 2003.
 Provides vital context for Nova Scotia as an intermediate settlement, illustrating how Scottish diaspora networks spanned both the Atlantic and the Pacific.
Campbell, R. H. The Rise and Fall of Scottish Industry, 1707–1939. Edinburgh: Donald, 1980.
 Examines economic pressures—industrialization, agrarian change, and rural displacement—that contributed to the migration of Highland families.
Fry, Michael. The Scottish Empire. East Lothian: Tuckwell Press, 2001.
 Places Scottish migration within an imperial framework, tracing how culture and religion were transported, adapted, and embedded in colonial contexts.
Harper, Marjory. “A Century of Scottish Emigration to New Zealand.” Immigrants & Minorities 29, no. 2 (2011): 220–239.
 Situates the Waipu migration within long-term patterns of Scottish emigration, combining statistical evidence with thematic analysis.
Lenihan, Rebecca. From Alba to Aotearoa: Profiling New Zealand’s Scots Migrants, 1840–1920. Dunedin, N.Z.: Otago University Press, 2015.
 Combines demographic data with personal narratives to reveal how Scottish migrants adapted to new environments while preserving cultural identity.
Mackillop, Andrew. More Fruitful than the Soil: Army, Empire, and the Scottish Highlands, 1715–1815. East Linton: Tuckwell Press, 2000.
 Explores Highlanders’ integration into imperial structures, illuminating the global networks and martial traditions that framed McLeod’s generation.
Mackenzie, John M. “Essay and Reflection: On Scotland and the Empire.” The International History Review 15, no. 4 (1993): 714–739.
 Reflects on Scotland’s place within the British Empire and the projection of diasporic identity abroad, including in colonial New Zealand.
McCarthy, Angela. Scottishness and Irishness in New Zealand since 1840. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011.
 Explores ethnic persistence and adaptation, situating Waipu Scots within broader debates about identity and belonging in New Zealand.
McCarthy, Angela. “‘Frugal and Thrifty, Hard-Working and Sober’: Representations of Scottishness in New Zealand.” Immigrants & Minorities 30, no. 1 (2012): 1–21.
 Examines how stereotypes of Scottish identity contrasted with lived experience, providing insight into cultural perception and adaptation in the New Zealand context.
McPherson, Flora. Watchman Against the World: The Story of Norman McLeod and His People. Christchurch, New Zealand: Whitcombe & Tombs Limited, 1962.
 A foundational narrative history tracing Norman McLeod’s life from Scotland to Nova Scotia and ultimately to Waipu, New Zealand. Drawing on family records, oral traditions, and early community accounts, McPherson offers an engaging yet carefully researched portrayal of McLeod’s leadership, his followers’ faith, and the challenges of migration.
Robinson, Neil. Lion of Scotland. London: Hodder & Stoughton Limited, 1952.
 Contains anecdotes and personal recollections from descendants of Norman McLeod’s settlers, providing a vivid, human perspective on their settlement in Waipu, New Zealand, and the long voyage it took to get there.
Molloy, Maureen. “‘McLeod, Norman.’” Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. First published in 1990. Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/1m39/mcleod-norman (accessed 10 September 2025).
 Provides a concise and authoritative biographical account of Norman McLeod, situating his leadership within the context of religious migration and colonial settlement in New Zealand.
Dictionary of Canadian Biography. “McLeod, Norman.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 9 (1861–1870). University of Toronto/Université Laval. https://www.biographi.ca/en/bio.php?id_nbr=4590 (accessed 10 September 2025).
 An essential scholarly biography detailing McLeod’s career in Nova Scotia and the challenges that shaped his community before their emigration to Australia and New Zealand.
Phillips, Jock. “History of Immigration – Auckland’s Immigrants: 1853 to 1870.” Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. https://teara.govt.nz/en/history-of-immigration/page-6 (accessed 10 September 2025).
 Describes the social and economic context of mid-nineteenth-century migration to Auckland, providing context for the Waipu settlers’ arrival.
Wilson, John. “Scots – 1853–1870: A Surge of Scots.” Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. https://teara.govt.nz/en/scots/page-4 (accessed 10 September 2025).
 Analyzes the wave of Scottish migration to New Zealand during the mid-nineteenth century, situating the Waipu community within a broader demographic and cultural movement.